1st Africa Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition Proceedings
Proceedings of the International Conference held in Durban, South Africa 27 - 29 March 2014 ISBN 978-88-89407-103
WIP - Renewable Energies and ETA-Florence Renewable Energies
PV Crystalline Cell Production Including High Efficiency PERC
Understanding the Sintering of Digital Inkjet Printed (DIP) Contacts to Achieve Low-contact Resistance on Silicon Solar Cells
Digital inkjet printing (DIP) is a precise and promising technology to create fine gridlines for silicon solar cell. It is based on drop on demand (DoD) technology, which drops only when it is properly aligned to avoid wide gridlines. The gridline spreading is controlled by heating the chuck (wafer holder) to ≥200oC at the time of the ink droplets. This eliminates drying step that is common to the screen-printing technology and eradicate gridline spreading. The screen-printed technology (SPT) on the other hand cannot exclude the drying step but relies on the silver loading and organics to balance the paste viscosity and rheology, which are used to control the gridline spreading. The difference between the inkjet and screen-printed inks is the particle size of the paste or ink constituents. While the DIP inks are in the nano-particle range, the SPT counterparts are in the micro-regime. Therefore, understanding the sintering of the nano-particle sizes is needed to achieve low contact resistance and hence high fill factor (FF), which is influenced by the total series resistance of the device. In this paper the microstructural analysis of the inkjet contact system was used to optimize the peak firing temperature for DIP gridlines. The optimized temperature profile found was similar to the SPT. This led to FF of ~79.2% for mono crystalline cell and efficiency of ~19.3% and ~17.4% for multi-crystalline with FF of ~78.5%. It was also found that the series resistance of these cells was not dominated by contact but emitter resistance.
PECVD Al2O3 for Surface Passivation: a Review of Solar Cell and Thin Layer Characteristics
A review about Al2O3 surface passivation for Si solar cell applications is presented. Whereat, a focus to the industrially relevant deposition technique PECVD is given. Al2O3 was already adapted to several cell concepts including PERC, PERT, TOPCon, EWT and IBC. Latest record cell efficiencies using Al2O3 passivation are summarized in this publication. Further, the passivation mechanism and the structure of Al2O3 are discussed in detail.
A Promising Approach for Next Generation Cu(In,Ga)Se2 and Cu2ZnSnS4 Thin Film Chalcogenide Photovoltaics
Crystallization Behavior of CZTSSe by Selenization of Sputtered CZTS Precursors
In this work, we study the effect of annealing on crystallization behavior of Cu2ZnSn(SxSe1-x)4 (CZTSSe) absorbers. Cu-Zn-Sn-S precursors are deposited on glass/Mo substrate by cosputtering of Cu, ZnS, and SnS. In order to have a better understanding of the mechanisms of formation of CZTSSe and secondary phases during annealing, the effect of annealing temperatures between 300 and 600°C, and annealing time from 1 to 60 min on structural and compositional properties of the cells have been studied. For the best annealing conditions, efficiencies between 2.3% and 7% were obtained. A comparison of material and solar cells properties extracted from chemical, structural and opto-electronic characterizations shows that whatever the annealing conditions, there is a simultaneous formation of CZTSSe and SnSe2 phases. We showed that these binaries are detrimental for the performance of solar cells, leading to a decrease of the Voc and FF.
Silicon Solar Cell Emitter Profile Tailoring Using the DOSS Diffusion Technique
A tight control of the dopant surface concentration is important during phosphorus emitter diffusion due to the opposite requirements of a lowly doped emitter for good blue response and a sufficiently high surface concentration for a good ohmic contact. The Doped Oxide Solid Source (DOSS) diffusion technique is well suited for fine-tuning of the surface concentration. The sources are made in the laboratory using the standard POCl3 diffusion technique and the source doping level can be controlled by changing the partial pressure of POCl3. DOSS diffusions were carried out in the temperature range 850-1050°C using sources with different doping levels obtained by varying the POCl3 partial pressure from 0.004% to 4.28%. The electrical profiles were measured using the Stripping Hall profiling technique. For the entire range of source doping concentrations and temperatures investigated, the obtained emitters were of the finite source emitter type and the profiles showed a surface concentration below the electrically active limit, thus implying the absence of a dead layer. The residual diffusion oxide was characterized using ellipsometry and XPS profiling. The oxide thickness increased with both temperature and source doping level within the range 7.5-30 nm. XPS profiling indicated that the composition of the residual glass was a mixture of P2O5 and SiO2. The phosphorus was not homogeneously distributed across the oxide but exhibited a pile-up in the near oxide surface region and also at the oxide/Si interface.
Fabrication and Characterization of Inversion Layer Solar Cell using PEDOT:PSS on n-Si
Development of Outdoor Research Platforms and Tests on Photovoltaic Modules in the Green Energy Park in Morocco
The Moroccan Solar Program aims to install 2000 MW of solar power production by 2020. In this context the paper intends to introduce the concept of the PV outdoor test platform that will be set up in the “Green Energy Park” as part of cooperation between the Moroccan IRESEN Rabat and the German Fraunhofer CSP Halle (Saale). The “Green Energy Park” has been established by IRESEN and OCP S.A in Ben Guerir. These outdoor test platforms are designed, combining a multitude of test-set-ups, in order to investigate and characterize PV modules in harsh weather conditions and to get valuable data about their performances in situ. The aims of the different test-set-ups as well as the recorded parameters are defined. Furthermore the systematic tests that are focusing on the outdoor behavior of PV modules are described. Some aspects of module improvements in design, in materials for hot regions like Morocco are introduced. The results that will be obtained in this platform after its realization will help to implement a new adapted certification process for the outdoor measurement and characterization.
System Technology for the Next Generation Village Energy Supply
According to the newest IEA World Energy Outlook, 1.2 billion people do not have access to electricity. Most of them live in remote areas where a connection to the public grid is not economically feasible. On the other hand, almost all of these areas are located within the “Sun Belt” region around the equator and have high solar resources. Offgrid solar energy systems have always been an interesting option for these remote areas and the continuing drop of solar panel prices as well as the low carbon emission of photovoltaic (PV) electricity makes them an even more attractive option. So far, in the field of remote PV energy systems, only low power components are available on the market. In order to supply larger consumers, different kinds of technical solutions allow parallelizing multiple small inverters or battery chargers in the range of a few kilowatts (kW) to reach a few hundreds of kW. Although this is a well-proven approach, it makes PV off-grid systems more complex and foremost more expensive. The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems has developed, in the frame of a research project funded by the German Ministry for Environment (BMU), the architecture and framework of the next generation village energy supply system (BMU key number 0325121). In this paper the focus is on the power electronic components developed within the project. Firstly the common system topology for PV-based off-grid applications is presented. Then a very advanced 125 kVA off-grid inverter, which is designed to challenge large diesel generators in their well-established market, is introduced. In a second part the associated highly innovative high voltage PV battery charger with its hybrid lead-acid (Pb) and lithium-ion (Li) battery will be presented. Also the energy management system and the used communication architecture will be introduced.
Perspectives on Solar PV project commissioning procedures: International comparisons, improvements and lessons learnt from solar PV plants in South Africa and the United Kingdom
With the first round of renewable energy projects in South Africa’s Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Programme (REIPPPP) reaching commercial operation, this paper aims to provide insight into what was learnt from the commissioning processes and what can be improved for the next REIPPPP rounds. We outline and compare the commissioning processes for a solar PV plant in South Africa to existing solar PV plants in the UK with regards to weather instrumentation, thermal imagery testing, performance ratio testing, contracted capacity vs. achieved capacity, and grid interface. Suggestions are made to improve the current commissioning procedures in South Africa looking towards the commissioning of future projects under the REIPPPP rounds.
Securitization of PV-Power Plant Performance - Experience of 1,5 GWp Field Inspections, Failure Analysis, Minimization of Risks
The economic success in operating photovoltaic systems depends essentially on the possibility of their long-term operation and delivery of the expected energy yield. Twenty to twenty-five years are often presupposed. These are high demands. A precondition is the good quality and long-term stability of the employed products, in particular the PV modules, as well as all other components and materials, and the non-appearance of damages to these items during transport and handling. In addition, the PV systems must be professionally planned, properly implemented and professionally operated with appropriate maintenance measures. Not only the quality of the PV modules is important, but also the quality of planning and installation of the overall system that pose high risks for long-term protection of profitability. The influential factors for the financial risk are not limited to the technical and safety-relevant risks. The risk assessment of photovoltaic projects must include an evaluation of the location regarding on-site risks and evaluation of the logistical risks in connection with the installation of the system.
Testing PV Central Inverters' Compliance with International Grid Codes
In many electrical grids worldwide, the rising amount of installed PV power entails a considerable influence of PV systems on grid quality and stability. Consequently, in the wake of the revised German medium voltage directives issued in 2009, new requirements for PV inverters have been established internationally. At Fraunhofer ISE’s Inverter Laboratory, more than 25 large PV inverters with a nominal power of up to 880 kVA have been characterised in the past three years. In this period, the focus of many inverter manufacturers has begun to shift from traditional European markets towards a truly international perspective. Therefore, experiences with numerous different grid codes have been gained by our team. This work summarises the similarities and differences between these grid codes. Additionally, several requirements that have proved to be critical will be examined in detail. In conclusion, the adequacy of these grid codes to guarantee the safe and reliable operation of electrical grids is discussed.
Meeting Utility Step Voltage Change Requirements by Providing Precise Voltage Control for a PV Plant on a Distribution Feeder
For well over 100 years now, distribution systems have served industrial, commercial, and residential customers. The generation to serve these customers for the most part has always been from some type of centralized station power source. As renewable generation becomes more distributed in the US, becoming more like Europe, it is being added to distribution networks. Most utilities have a voltage flicker limit, which is usually set at a 2% step voltage change. Often, utilities use this step change in voltage limit to set the largest size of capacitor banks on their distribution systems, but it can also be used to size the amount of renewable generation allowed on the distribution system. The renewable generation is capped at a MW size where the sudden loss of this generation keeps voltage dip no greater than 2%. Thus, a utility’s goal is to minimize the impact of variation in or the loss of the renewable generation power output on its other customers served from the distribution system. This paper presents a method for designing and sizing a STATCOM installation on a utility distribution system such that the loss of the renewable generation will not exceed the utility’s voltage dip requirements.
Installing Solar Systems on the Face of Existing African Dams for Additional Energy Production
Recognizing the issues of land shortage and growing concerns for protecting natural lands, installers, project developers with the help of scientists and engineers try to locate alternative spots for PV-systems installations. In the present paper the authors describe a novel approach, installing PV systems on the outside face of dams. This approach, although currently applied very moderately, has certain advantages that favor even large-scale systems with a capacity of several MWs. In the case of energy-producing hydroelectric dams, the created hybrid system can be notably efficient. The intermittent solar energy will be counterbalanced by hydropower. At the same time, peak demand will be partially covered by PV energy production, ensuring energy availability. Recent research reviewed by the authors has revealed that a notable number of water reservoirs in African continent are under-utilized or don't serve any energy production purpose. That unexploited energy potential apart from being utilized through hydropower development can also be amplified by simultaneous solar system installation. Supplementary power capacity will increase the total energy production and result to economic and environmental benefits.
312 kW Solar PV-Diesel Minigrid in Bambadinca, Guinea-Bissau
Bambadinca is a village in Guinea Bissau, a developing country, in West Africa, with about 7,000 people with no reliable access to electricity, where 70% of the population lives with less than 2US$/day. The purpose of this project, funded by the European Commission - as part of the ACP-EU Energy Facility budget line IPAD - Portuguese cooperation Agency, is the village rural electrification through a microgrid, providing good quality, reliable and affordable electricity to the population, to fight extreme poverty increasing educational opportunities, improving health conditions and supporting fundamental economic activities. To accomplish these objectives and to ensure economical and financial sustainability, a three-party participatory management model for the Decentralized System for Production and Distribution of Electricity from Renewable Energy, will be implemented by a local association in cooperation with national authorities. In this paper we discuss the sizing of the PV hybrid power plant, micro-grid design options and layout, management model and project deployment challenges.
Off-grid Rooftop Solar System with Solar-first and Virtual Grid Features
Solar rooftops, particularly for urban area where availability of land can be an issue, have been aggressively pursued by introducing specific incentives like net metering or feed in tariff or for diesel abatement. In case of a grid interactive Solar Photo-Voltaic (SPV) generator, use of diesel generator may be needed under grid outages. This paper proposes a rooftop solar system topology which ensures continued solar power evacuation to the load even in load shedding scenarios. This arrangement has the potential for replacement/ reduction of Diesel generators (DGs) used for backup power. In this system photovoltaic energy serves as the primary source of electricity and utility grid serves as the secondary source. ‘Solar First’ operation ensures that the solar power generated is always evacuated first and any excess requirement of power is supplied by the grid/battery via a Bi -directional inverter. This concept finds high relevance in solar city program in India as well as other countries, as such a topology doesn’t require any change in the existing power infrastructure and will decrease the load on the utility grid and increases the overall energy efficiency.
Energy Efficiency and Renewables - New Solutions for Rural Areas in Developing Countries
Even if people living in rural areas of developing countries is still not connected to the public grid, the need of electric energy in any village has been become quite indispensable, and, around the villages, we see many "charging stations"; equipped with small generators, where people could charge mobile phone, laptop computer and so on. This could only mitigate the lack of electrical energy in rural areas and supply energy for small emergency needs. The global amount of electric energy needed by every family is not very high, if all electrical devices are chosen between modern energy saving devices, so, to provide energy generation for rural areas, we studied and developed a series of photovoltaic kits, all equipped with batteries to store energy and diesel generator for emergencies, to be installed in small villages to supply families with electric energy for their basic needs. These kits have power of 15, 30 and 45 (up to 60 kW) and we forecast they could be suitable respectively for about 30, 60 and 90 families, based on a consumption evaluation of about 2÷2,5 kWh/day for every family. Supplying electric energy to every family could be performed through overhead lines, everyone connected to the generation plant through an electronic meter, installed into the fenced area of the plant, to protect it from fraudulent activities. To assure payment of electricity bill the electronic meter should be managed as a "virtual account", with charges of "electricity bonus" directly by mobile phone or by prepaid scratch cards. Also humanitarian associations, as well single donor, could easily perform their goals directly charging the people account, even from remote, even with a small amount of money, however allowing local people to access the electrical energy for a period. These kits are also already preset to be connected in the future to the public grid, to work with, to assure green energy production to the country.
Mobile Solar Power Delivery System for Rural Applications
The paper describes the design and implementation of a mobile Solar Power Delivery System for use in rural areas. The work is undertaken jointly by the University of the District of Columbia in Washington, DC, USA, (UDC) and Bahir Dar University (BDU) in Ethiopia. This UDC-BDU partnership was initially supported by a Seed Grant from the US Embassy in Ethiopia. The design introduces novel features providing versatility and mobility and has beneficial applications to the rural populations whose need in potable water and water for small scale irrigation is very acute. The design is performed with the help of graduate and undergraduate students at BDU and has contributed to the infusion renewable energy in the engineering curriculum.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator Design for Equatorial Africa
Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC) design uses interposed optical devices (such as parabolic trough, parabolic dish, linear Fresnel reflectors, etc) between the source of radiation (Sun in this case) and the energy absorbing surface (solar cell). The CPCs can be either symmetric or asymmetric. Nigeria lies between latitude 4°N to 14°N and Longitude 2°E to 15°E while Abuja where this project will be experimented lies between 9.176°N and longitude 7.181°E. Nigeria is close to the Equator and has lower altitude unlike the United Kingdom that has higher altitudes to the sun. Asymmetric CPC is best applicable in countries with higher altitudes like the UK while symmetric CPC is best applicable in countries having lower altitudes. There are majorly two motivations of using concentration in solar collectors The first is to improve performance such as effective geometric concentration ratio, concentration ratio and optical efficiency the second motivation is reducing the cost by the optimization of the concentrator profile such as the solar incident angle and height of the concentrator. There are two related approaches that are possible for CPC design. The first one is the use of non-imaging concentrators and the second one is the use of imaging concentrators. The focus of the present work is to design and develop solar concentrator that is stationary and able to harness solar energy in the maximum. It is symmetric 3D CPC with a concentration ratio of 3X. It is a non-imaging concentrator to achieve high energy generation for stand-alone or mini-grids for built environment. The approximate factors that are to be optimized to increase the radiation flux on the energy absorbing surfaces are – i) the ray distribution on the concentrator, ii) ray focusing on the solar cell, and iii) the CPC design to reduce ray leakage or energy loss. This is approached by the method of using coordinate systems, solid works, solid edge and optics work software. The calculated acceptance apertures and CPC heights for the chosen acceptance half angles obtained after Intensive modelling indicate that the height of CPC could be truncated without losing the required concentration ratio of 3X thereby reducing the material cost. The CPC system designed in the present study is expected to have low cost, high efficiency with reliable improved performance to generate power that will contribute to addressing power demand in the equatorial countries like Nigeria and Africa at large.
Potential Induced Degradation (PID) - Applied Field Analysis, Regeneration and Prevention in the Field, Standard Test
The Influence of Fuel Subsidies and Taxes on the Potential for Decentralised PV Power on the African Continent
Many people in African countries lack access to sufficient electricity supply mostly due to high power generation costs. In order to provide electricity access to a wider part of the population, it is necessary to exploit the vast renewable resources in African countries. Therefore, this paper scrutinises the economic advantages of photovoltaic-based hybrid systems over fossil-fuel based generation. The assessment calculates the cost advantage of hybrid systems compared to diesel-only systems for the entire continent on a long term basis and by applying two scenarios: One based on world market diesel prices and the other one based on national diesel prices. The results indicate that average power generation costs per country can be reduced by up to 0.11 €/kWh considering world market diesel prices and by up to 0.48 €/kWh considering national diesel prices. Furthermore, the effect of fuel-price subsidies on the renewable energy potential and the respective savings are examined. The findings may ameliorate the policy development and demonstrate the advantages of decentralized renewable hybrid systems especially in rural areas of Africa.
Diffusion of Solar Energy Technologies in Rural Africa: Trends in Kenya and the LUAV Experience in Uganda
The diffusion of Modern Energy Technologies Africa has been found to be very low especially for solar energy systems. The installed solar PV capacity in Africa is a major issue of concern globally. This low trend in technology adoption is of interest because Africa enjoys some of the best solar radiation levels in the world averaging between 4 – 6 kWh/m2/day for most of the year. It was initially speculated that the low uptake of solar technology was associated with the continent’s high poverty levels and limitations in technical capacity as well as awareness; nevertheless, the introduction of Mobile Telephony Technology (MTT) has cast some doubt on those speculations due to the rapid assimilation and diffusion of the technology in several African countries. The paper elaborates on the approach taken by a successful MET business model known as the Lighting-up-a-village (LUAV), designed by an energy company, Barefoot Power (BFP), in Uganda. This model has been used to distribute micro solar home systems in rural Uganda and exhibited a rapid uptake rate that resulted in the establishment of 18 LUAV projects in a span of 12 months. Through the LUAV program, more than 3000 households took up the technology securing their own independent power generation hub. The success factors noted in the LUAV business model were identified and highlighted so as to present recommendations on the key factors that can possibly drive a rapid adoption of METs.
RE2nAF: Exploring Scenarios for off Grid Electricity Production Options in Africa
The international community is committed to supporting Africa to address its energy challenges but the definition of continental priorities and ways of implementation is under national, sub-regional and regional African policy domains. The scope of this work is to present an analytical easy-to-use web-based tool, RE²nAF, which enables geographically based analysis for off-grid electricity production options in Africa. Decision makers, academia, investors and other stakeholders can benefit from its use in deciding which energy technology options would better deliver electrification services to rural areas in Africa, after exploring the impact on least cost option caused by simulating different scenarios.
Lessons learnt from the AFRETEP for the African PV sector development
The Joint Research Centre of the European Commission JRC has developed the African Renewable Energy Technology Platform AFRETEP platform with 760+ African and European members, cooperating institutions for research. As a part of the project the JRC has provided training to nearly a hundred African academics in regional trainings on the state-of-art rural electrification technologies; these can also be followed online in web-streaming. The project has developed mapping applications and methods to support national governments and agencies to decide which energy technology options would better deliver their goals of rural electrification and made these available to the continents scientific communities in publications. The methods -developed by the JRC platform- take into account the diversity of energy resources, coupled with the existing grid, transport infrastructure, hydropower resources, the current diesel and photovoltaic costs, to map the current least-cost electricity options for rural electrification. So far, geographical datasets have been made publicly available (www.afretep.net) and several published papers and conferences have facilitated the spread of the results to the interested stakeholders. Most of these results are available on the Platform and the JRC websites.
Environmental Benefits of Solar Photovoltaics in South Africa
With extensive coal supplies, South Africa currently meets over 90% of its electricity needs through coal. However, the South African government has committed to diversifying its energy portfolio, including reducing dependence on coal by 2030 to 65% (from the current 93%) which will result in a new non-coal capacity of ~28 GW. In addition, the 2010 Integrated Resource Plan lists the intention of installing 300 MW per year of solar power from 2012 onwards. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) methods have been used to compare life cycle environmental impacts of grid electricity in South Africa with electricity from photovoltaics (PV). While a variety of life cycle environmental impact assessment methods are currently available, there has been a recent effort within the Joint Research Center of the European Commission to develop consensus impact methods through the ILCD. In the case of ground-mounted CdTe PV systems and roof-mounted crystalline Si PV systems, displacement of South African grid electricity results in over two-thirds reductions in a variety of impact categories for ecosystems, human health, and natural resources. The only impact category where PV does not provide a comparative benefit is with respect to the ILCD mineral, fossil, and renewable resource depletion category. This is primarily due to the use of valuable metals in PV modules and balance of systems. The impacts of resource depletion by PV may be mitigated by high-value end-of-life product recycling that recovers both bulk materials (e.g., glass, aluminum, copper) and semiconductor and rare materials in PV modules, and recovers recyclable materials (e.g., steel, aluminum, and copper) in balance of systems. In the case of ground-mount PV systems, potential land use impacts may be reduced by responsible land use practices that include careful site selection, minimal soil grading techniques, and project decommissioning that includes end-of-life recycling.
The Energy Centre Model - An Approach to Village Scale Energy Supply
A model for off-grid, village scale power supply has been developed through a pilot project in Ikisaya in Kenya. The project was initiated and carried out by a team of social scientists and practitioners from Kenya, India, Norway and Austria through the Solar Transitions research project, led by the University of Oslo. Through a participatory approach with the local community, the project developed an energy centre model which became operational on March 20th, 2012. The model creates affordable and accessible basic lighting and electricity services for off-grid households and businesses through a financially sustainable design. It is designed to be operated by local residents on commercial principles. Today, it provides lighting services to about 100 households. Other services provided at the centre include phone charging, photocopying, typing, TV/video shows and electric shaving. The paper describes and rationalizes the model and shares experiences from the first 1½ years of operation. The financial performance is documented and suggestions are provided on how the model could be improved.
Strategic PV Project Development with Strengthened Renewable Energy Governance as a Solution to Sustainable Electrification in Eastern Africa, with Country Focuses of Tanzania and Uganda
Solar photovoltaic power plants with their ease of implementation and minimal negative environmental and social impacts can be seen as the potential long-term solution for the rural electrification problem in Eastern African countries, namely Tanzania and Uganda, for reaching their targeted electricity access ratios for the next decades. Appropriate regulation of the renewable energy markets, innovative financing options and effective incentives for Solar PV power generation investments will prove decisive for the pace and extent of their expansion both for public and private initiatives in these countries. This paper starts with a brief analysis of related regulatory bodies, frameworks and policies in Tanzania and Uganda for solar PV implementations and introduces the relevant barriers and opportunities. As a result of this assessment, recommendations for an ideal business plan and competitive strategies to overcome the already existing barriers for PV implementations are presented. The research is based on desktop and on site research performed with key stakeholders.
Measures for the Diffusion of Solar PV are Aligned in Technology Action Plans for Six Countries in Africa
Recently, development projects have provided support to governments to facilitate technology transfer for climate change adaptation and mitigation. These include the Technology Needs Assessment (TNA) funded by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). In the TNA project, which was implemented in ten African countries from 2010 to 2013, dedicated government committees have prioritized climate change mitigation technologies and developed action plans for the diffusion of the selected technologies. The project results show that solar PV is high on the agenda in Africa. Six out of ten countries in the region prioritized solar PV, and action plans for the diffusion of solar home systems were put forward in Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Mali and Senegal, while the implementation of grid-connected systems was proposed in Rwanda, Mali and Senegal. The project reports and technology action plans prepared in these six countries are used as the basis for comparing how solar PV is perceived in these countries and how policy measures enabling environmental adjustments and investment programmes are being planned to promote diffusion of the technology in these different contexts.
Mapping the Cost of Electricity from Grid-connected and Off-grid PV Systems in Africa
We present the calculation of Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) for PV systems in Africa and the Middle East. The calculations are based on estimates of the PV energy productivity from satellite data combined with models for the performance of both grid-connected and off-grid PV systems. The PV productivity figures can then be combined with scenarios for the cost of PV system installations in terms of initial investment, operation and maintenance, as well as discount rate for the LCOE calculation. The results show that using realistic estimates of installation and maintenance costs, and 5% p.a. discount rate, the LCOE of PV electricity is below 7 c€/kWh in most of Northern and Southern Africa, rising to 9-10c€ in the cloudy tropical belt near the Equator. If the discount rate is 10%, the LCOE is 9-10c€/kWh in most of Africa, rising to 13-14c€ in tropical West Africa. This shows clearly the importance of a good financing framework. Calculations of the performance of PV minigrid systems shows that the electricity cost from these systems is higher, at 18-25 c€, but it is still competitive with many other options for rural electrification.
Review of Solar PV Market Development in East Africa
PV Leasing - Creating Markets for Residential and Industrial Scale PV
Public-Communitary Partnership in Bambadinca Hybrid PV-Diesel-Batteries Power Plant
The Near Future (2030) Photovoltaic Energy Availability in Africa: Outcomes from a Climate-Aerosols Modelling Exercise
PV in South Africa - the REIPPP program as enabler for the local PV industry
The South African REIPPP program is a success. To continue this success a continuous attention for the details is necessary. Focussing on the PV programs and more on the PV modules, this detail is the formulation of the local content. With the current formulation of the local content and its increasing value in subsequent rounds, the local manufacturers will face an abrupt demand change that is extremely challenging to manage. A suggestion is given to add to the local content formula a sentence describing that a fraction (proposed is 40%) of the PV modules installed in South Africa have to be laminated in South Africa. This formulation will result in a gradually increased production capacity and a healthy and sustainable local PV module industry including the vast majority of the raw materials. A local manufacturing of the PV modules in South Africa will be guaranteed, which eliminates the intrinsically cost increasing assembly of PV modules. No increase of the electricity price (R/kWh) will be obtained and most exciting, the development of the local private South African PV market will be significantly accelerated. In this way the REIPPP program fulfils its aim as the enabler for the local South African PV industry.
The Role of Municipalities in the Development of a Private PV Market
How to come to a Thriving PV-Sector in South Africa vs Actual Know-How
A Practical Look at the Benefits and Challenges of Grid-tied Solar PV for the Commercial/Industrial Sector
Welcome to Komax Solar - Production Equipment for PV Modules
Application of Solar PV Systems in Developing Countries
KazPV Project: Creation of Production of Photovoltaic Modules in the Republic of Kazakhstan